Most of us don’t think about the ways we can connect the imagery of climate change— factories pumping thick smokestacks, inundated coastlines and destroyed homes, polar bears sinking on melting icebergs—to the thing we need most every morning: a cup of coffee. But its agriculture, production, and consumption all play an intimate and unstudied role in tackling the largest environmental crisis of our era.
Recently, an academic study published in Bioscience found that while coffee cultivation in Asia is on the rise, shade-grown coffee systems have decreased by 20 percent globally since the 1990s. As climate change increasingly threatens future outputs of one of the most important beverages to modern society (after water, of course), this matters for a whole slew of reasons. Open-sun cultivation, often pictured as rows and rows of manicured coffee bushes devoid of any other crop varieties or native vegetation, remains the dominant mode of cultivation today. But trees contribute more than just shade to the coffee, adding to its unique texture and flavor profiles across hilly landscapes throughout the Western Ghats. The diverse canopies of native trees contribute incredible species diversity, offering additional habitats to the fauna that call it home. They offer strength in numbers, providing resilience against natural shocks to the ecosystem like flooding, droughts, and wildfires. They filter and clean the water, maintain soil quality from erosion, and most importantly in the era of global warming: they store carbon.

India remains unique in the world as most coffee grown here is often in diverse multi- cropping homesteads under the canopy of forest trees, which play a huge role in mitigating the amount of CO2 being pumped out by our factories, cars, and power-plants. The process works a little like this: through photosynthesis, the trees take in CO2 and exchange it for the oxygen we need to breathe. But this also does something else, something we can’t see with our own eyes. The carbon gets fixed by the trees, sucked up through the dense network of leaves, woody stems, and thick trunks back down into earth where it is stored as soil carbon. This ancient process becomes one of the most important “sinks” in the carbon cycle, making trees the real unsung heroes of climate change. As natural agents in mitigating the spiraling levels of greenhouse gases around the world, we need them to get the job done.

That’s why promoting shade-grown coffee is such a big deal. This lies at the heart of some   of the research I have been conducting with Black Blaza as a Fulbright researcher alongside the Bangalore-based institute Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and Environment (ATREE). Black Baza prides itself on being an activist company with a unique mission: to reconstruct the existing marketplaces for coffee and re-embed it in place, people, and ecology. This means eliminating the use of pesticides or fertilizers, and relying only on organic, natural farming. They envision a market system which values producers and nature equally by conserving native forest cover and local biodiversity (like the small raptor that inspired the company’s name) while enhancing the participation, voices, and ideas of farmers in the overall production cycle.

The focus of their efforts lies in the hazy green mountains of the BR Hills tiger reserve, the mighty ecological corridor between the Western and Eastern Ghats that’s home to hundreds of different species of wildlife. It’s also the home of the Soliga community, the Adivasi stewards of the land who have been intimately linked with these forests for hundreds of years. Originally the community lived off the forest, harvesting non-timber products like lichen, gooseberry, and honey while sometimes practicing shifting cultivation. But once the region was recognized as a Wildlife Sanctuary in 1974, the Soliga community was directed to settle in hamlets outside of the forest interior and practice settled agriculture. Families started growing traditional crops—millet, ragi—which quickly attracted hungry wildlife like elephants, boars, and deer, disrupting the delicate balance between conservation and livelihoods. In the 1990s, the government promoted coffee as  an alternative cash crop that didn’t cause human-wildlife conflict and was easy to maintain, and family by family, households converted to its cultivation. Since they live in highly protected forests, the farmers often kept native trees standing, planting coffee by the bush on the forest floor.  So while the Soligas never actively made the decision to grow coffee in this landscape themselves, year after year it becomes a bigger part of the community’s new ecological identity.
But even now, there are many unanswered questions in this new forest-agriculture landscape. In a rich biodiversity hotspot like BR Hills, how was the presence of coffee farms affecting the connectivity of key forest species like pollinators, or the diversity profile of standing trees? Black Baza knew they couldn’t effectively reach their radical mission without the right metrics. Circling back to the mighty power of carbon storage, the untapped potential of shade trees as an ecosystem service had also remained unstudied and unnoticed.

That’s where we came in. My team arrived at the tiger reserve at the tail end of the monsoon season with a deceivingly difficult mission: we wanted to know just how much carbon was being sequestered, or stored, in the farms that Black Baza partners with in BR Hills, compared to the neighboring forests. Farm after farm, we set up plots, delicately wrapping tape measures around trunks, counting the centimeters across the branches of coffee bushes, and identifying the diverse native trees by their local name. We machete’d our way through forests choked by the Lantana vine, an invasive plant introduced by the British during their colonial occupation. While the Brits left, the Lantana unfortunately stayed, and still today no natural source of control exists for this weed. We passed by mounds of fresh elephant dung, a reminder of their ever-close proximity. The Soliga rule of thumb: if you see a wild elephant, run.
After months of field work, we had the measurements we needed to understand the power of shade coffee as a fighting force for climate change. And what we found was pretty wild— the carbon stored above ground in shade coffee systems was near-equal to forests plots of the same size, meaning the two systems were comparable in storing carbon within the vegetation’s woody tissue. But this is  not to  say that shade coffee systems are the same as native forests. Just because they may provide similar carbon storage benefits doesn’t mean we should replace every protected forest with coffee farms. But for coffee production itself, this really exhibits the mighty ecological power trees actively offer us when we grow coffee under their leafy canopies. And for Black Baza, this helps them get one step closer   to reimagining the role coffee can play in conservation and agricultural livelihoods. So the next time you pour a cup of organic shade-grown brew, know that you’re not just enjoying the delicate tastes of the elevations at which it grows, or its chemical-free inputs—you’re giving a nod to the original actors keeping our planet cooler, healthier, and greenhouse gas-free.

This is a story about trawl-fishing, about the lives of the people who depend on this dying industry and the reasons for its inevitable demise. Ultimately, it seems likely that the industry is destined for collapse, doomed by its own brutal efficiency. But what does this mean for individual fishers? How are we preparing for a time when trawl-fishing is no longer able to provide jobs to the millions that have depended upon it for decades and what is the future for those people?

Left anchorage at 6 a.m., the crew still brushing their teeth. A full moon casts a yellow light over calm waters. The sun will not rise for another hour. The Indian fishing town of Malvan recedes into the darkness.
 Around the globe, mechanised trawler-boats have become one of the mainstays of commercial fishing. Although they vary massively in scale, the principle is the same – a net is cast from the back of a motorised vessel and towed for a number of hours. Sometimes the net is dragged along the sea-floor, sometimes it hangs midway in the water column. In either case, whatever marine life is in the net’s path, it is caught up and mechanical winches then haul it aboard the boat.

Once in deeper waters, winches begin whirring, ropes begin to play out and the net is cast for the first time of the day…

Trawling is a hugely effective way of extracting marine resources with a high market value. However, the problem lies in its indiscriminate nature. A whole suite of organisms that are not targeted or commercially valuable end up in trawl nets. These range from juvenile fish to sea turtles to sea snakes.

These two factors—the large number of boats operating throughout the tropics and the broad range of species which are caught—have set in motion a chain of events which are having severe consequences, both for marine ecosystems and fisher communities.

First, due to the effectiveness of the technique, trawling has been one of the factors which  has caused dramatic declines in stocks of highly prized commercial species such as anchoveta (Engraulis ringens) in Peru and other South American countries, and prawn stocks in Southeast Asia and Australia. Some fisheries experts say that because stocks of target species are in such a depleted state, there are now none which can be ‘sustainably’ harvested. There are just those for which harvesting is slightly less unsustainable than others.
The next link in the chain is the commercialisation of by-catch. By-catch is all the sea-life which was not being targeted, but which was caught incidentally due to the non-selectivity of the   trawl nets. By-catch is estimated to account for around 40% of the global marine catch and has traditionally had little market value. In the past, therefore, much of it was thrown back into the sea. Now however, as stocks of target species decline, fishers are forced to commercialise more of this by-catch to maintain income-levels.

…and in the two hours in which the net will be pulled through the water, there is time to speak with the crew. Deepak is young – he can be no more than 22. His arms are strong and on one arm is a heart tattoo, with the initials of a past girlfriend. When asked about it, he smiles bashfully. Anil meanwhile has been working on fishing boats since he was 14 or 15. Now 46, he is one of the most experienced members of the crew. Direct and straightforward, Anil answers questions in the same way that he and his crew-mates complete all tasks aboard the boat – briskly. Here in Malvan he earns about Rs100 a day (less than 1 ½ USD). With this money he supports his family at home in Karwar, Karnataka: his wife, son and two daughters, the eldest of whom is in her second year at university. The crew takes shore leave on rotation and having just returned, Anil will now not see his family for four to five months. By working on a trawler, Anil is able to provide his family with comparative financial security. It is true that were he to get injured, there is no health insurance on these boats and the owner would provide no financial assistance with medical costs. He previously worked on a small-scale gill-net vessel, a way of life which neither required such long spells at sea, nor so much time away from his family, but which compelled a more-or-less hand-to-mouth existence. Now on the trawler he has a reliable income and earns enough to make life more comfortable for his family. He does not have a passion for the ocean, or for this way of life – it is simply a job. But it is one that he and his family depend on for their health and livelihood.
At8.30a.m.the net is winched in.By8.50a.m.the catch has been landed on to the boat and an hour and a half later it has been sorted, the target and trash-fish boxed, the discards thrown overboard. Sorting is done by hand with dust-pans and plastic scrapers. Venomous sea snakes are buried amidst the squirming, salt pile.Bites are not uncommon.
10.30 a.m.–breakfast.Fishcurryandrice, cooked below deck at the prow, by the ship-cookShivram.
The net was re-cast for a second trawl almost as soon as the first was hauled up – there will be four today. Despite the aid of mechanised winches, the physical exertion required by the crew is immense. As is the potential danger. Men run along the gunwales as the small boat pitches, wheels spin, cranks pull and taut metal lines thrum and strain. Although regularly maintained, the machinery is decades old and rutted with rust. Not one of the fishers is without scars.
 
As a testament to the ingenuity of the fishing economy, a number of markets have been established for by-catch which previously had no commercial value. Some is sold for food, with re-branding or euphemistic names used to entice customers, such as crab cake, or the better known fish oils and other dietary supplements. Most, however, is dried, ground down into powder and made into fishmeal. This is then used in animal feeds (ironically this includes food for fish farms, which have been proposed as one solution to overfishing) and fertilisers.
12.30 p.m. – lunch. Fried fish and rice. After the meal everyone does their own washing up, including the Captain, Yeshwant. He chews a mouthful of saunf (fennel seeds) and the cabin is filled with the sweet smell.

At 8.30 a.m. the net is winched in. By 8.50 a.m. the catch has been landed onto the boat and an hour and a half later it has been sorted, thetarget and trash-fish boxed, the discards thrown overboard. Sorting is done by hand with dust-pans and plastic scrapers. Venomous sea snakes are buried amidst the squirming, salty pile. Bites are notuncommon.

But as with stocks of commercial species, it seems inevitable that the fishing industry’s strategy of diversification, known as “fishing down the food web” , cannot be sustained in the long-term. More data is needed to be certain, but since overexploitation has dramatically reduced stocks of commercially important fish such as tuna and anchoveta, it seems highly likely that the new reliance on alternative species will, in turn, denude stocks of these forms of sea-life.
The last haul of the day is negligible – disappointed and late we turn for shore, heading almost due North on an easterly bearing73°27.015’E.Drop anchor at 5.30 p.m.The impact of the relentlessly throbbing engine on our eardrums only becomes clear when it stops at last.A hollow space is left behind.Thecrewloadasmallrow-boat and ferry the catch to the market on the beach.

A working day of over 12 hours. The crew does not get weekends.
And where this chain ends, it seems, must be the collapse of the trawl-fishing industry. Marine- life simply does not have the capacity to reproduce at a rate that will keep pace with the rate of extraction, and so the biodiversity of our oceans will reach such a depleted state that no large scale fishing will be economically viable. It is true that there are global efforts to reduce the ecological impacts of fishing. However, there is an enormous gulf between allowing marine ecosystems to slowly recover, and bringing them back to a point where they can once again be harvested on a commercial scale.
And so, it seems that the sad but inevitable truth is that in many ways, trawler fishing can already be seen to be dead in the water – it is only a matter of time before it sinks completely.  Stocks of target species are already barely commercially viable. The fishmeal industry is no more sustainable in the long term. On the one hand it is difficult to have sympathy for an industry which has literally destroyed its own foundations by overexploiting the resource on which it depends. On the other however, to view the issue from this broad scale misses the finer detail. It misses the impacts on the lives of individual fishers like Anil, Deepak and their crew-mates-Yeshwant the captain and Shrivam the cook, Pintya, Lankesh, Subodh and Keshav; the impacts on the thousand such ‘thalashis’ at Malvan, and the millions more around India’s coastline.

The challenge now is finding a brighter future, for both the myriad life-forms that live in our seas, and also the approximately 40 million people that depend on those seas for their livelihoods. With the demise of the industry these people will find themselves with no means to support themselves and their families. And so it is vital that although the industry will die out—be it over the next 10, 20 or even 50 years—we do not allow its fishers to sail into the abyss with it.

Further Reading
 Bhathal, B., and D. Pauly. 2008. “‘Fishing down Marine Food Webs’ and Spatial Expansion of Coastal Fisheries in India, 1950-2000.” Fisheries Research 91 (1): 26–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fishres.2007.10.022.
FAO. 2018. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2018 – Meeting the Sustainable Development Goals. THE STATE OF THE WORLD Series of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Vol. 35. https://doi.org/ issn 10.
Kelleher, K. 2005. “Discards in the World s Marine Fisheries: An Update.” FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, no. 470: 22. https://doi.org/ISBN 92-5-105289-1.
Lobo, A.S., A. Balmford, R. Arthur, and A. Manica. 2010. “Commercializing Bycatch Can Push a Fishery beyond Economic Extinction.” Conservation Letters 3 (4): 277–85. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2010.00117.x.
Nunoo, F.K.E., J.O. Boateng, A.M. Ahulu, K.A. Agyekum, and U. Rashid. 2009. “When Trash Fish Is Treasure : T Case of Ghana in West Africa” 96: 167–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fishres.2008.10.010.

Manipur’s dancing deer, the sangai, has one last stronghold – Keibul Lamjao National Park (KLNP), the world’s only floating protected area. But even this floating paradise is at risk. Lauded as the state animal of Manipur, the sangai (Cervus eldi eldi) occupies a mere 15-20 sq. km. of floating marshland known as “phumdi” on the southern edge of Loktak Lake, a naturally occurring wetland and RAMSAR site in this north- eastern state. Phumdi is the most important characteristic of its habitat. This floating vegetation is created by  the amassing of organic debris and biomass with soil, varying from a few centimeters to a few meters in thickness. While most of it is under the water’s surface, it floats delicately, creating a unique floating island ecosystem on Loktak Lake.

The sangai goes by many names; the dancing deer and the brow-antlered deer are two of the most commonly used appellations. The former is derived from its dainty gait that has inspired the movements of the equally graceful Manipuri classical dance style. The latter name is derived from the deer’s unique antlers, with the front protruding beam appearing to comeout of the deer’s brow or forehead. Primarily associated with a wetland habitat, this deer feeds twice a day on aquatic plant species, grasses, herbs, and shoots.

Culturally, the sangai is venerated in Manipur. Popular folk legends associate the sangai with the bridge between the human soul and nature. To kill a sangai is to symbolically destroy the delicate binding between humans and nature; thus, this dancing deer is the way that Manipuri tribes express their love for nature. The sangai is also one of the rarest animals in the world and a great source of pride for the people of this state – its name can be found on signages, in restaurant names, in tourism appeals, and in newspapers.

The dancing deer was thought to be  hunted to extinction during the British Raj, but in 1951, it was rediscovered by British tea planter and famous naturalist Edward Pritchard  Gee. His report on the deer, which described in detail its unique antlers and specific habitat, was published in the journal of the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) in December 1960. After the Wildlife Protection Act (1972) was passed, M.K. Ranjitsinh, who contributed to the creation of the Act, carried out an aerial survey for the sangai in 1975. His survey found 14 deer in the area now notified as KLNP.
Despite legal protection, KLNP faces many challenges. Phumdis cover 70 percent of Loktak Lake, but only 23 sq. km. of this floating vegetation, found within the national park, is thick enough (at least 1 m thick) to bear the weight of sangai. Additionally, the lake itself faces shallowing waters. Nearly 30 rivers feed into Loktak Lake, and the sediment inflow is high year-round. The only outflow from the lake is at the Ithai Barrage, which releases water but not sediment, contributing to various ecological crises in this wetland ecosystem. The barrage was constructed with the aim of running hydropower projects in the southern end of Loktak Lake. After its construction, the water level was maintained at a consistent 769.12 m above sea level, creating stress in the lake due to conditions of permanent flooding.

Moreover, the barrage prevents fish species from swimming upstream during the spawning season. Another major impact is the prevention of the natural removal of old phumdis, which once flowed out of the lake into the Manipur River but are now stopped by the barrage. Water pollution also contributes to the degradation of the lake ecosystem. The influx of detergents, agricultural fertilizers, and wastes from the inflowing rivers has created various algal blooms that deplete the oxygen levels in the water and reduce the biodiversity of the lake. Human activities including fish farming, fishing, agriculture, and poaching have added to the stresses upon the lake. The presence of the invasive plant species water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) has increased the biomass on the lake surface, contributing to localized eutrophication. Without careful environmental management and community support, Loktak Lake is expected to become a dead zone.
If the sangai’s habitat faces such diverse onslaughts, what protection can Manipur offer its state animal?  The sangai is wholly dependent upon the preservation of KLNP. As the quality of Loktak Lake and the national park continue to decline, the survival of the sangai in this isolated pocket of the world becomes more doubtful. Add to that the loss of genetic variety, inbreeding depression, and disease outbreaks, and the sangai’s last dance seems to be rapidly approaching.

While the deer’s population has increased slightly over the past decade due to increased protection, its survival is still tenuous. The fate of an entire species rests on the responsible management of their wetland ecosystem. A recent proposal by various stakeholders has suggested Pumlen Pat and the adjoining Thongam Mondum Reserve Forest as possible sites for the reintroduction of the sangai due to similarities with KLNP. Reintroduction in other sites could buffer the species to some degree.
Is the sangai doomed to its last dance or can we ensure its persistence in the ever-changing human- nature interface of India’s Northeast?

References
 Kangabam, R. D., Boominathan, S. D., & Govindaraju, M. 2015. Ecology, disturbance and restoration of Loktak Lake in Indo-Burma Biodiversity Hotspot-An overview. An international journal of environment and biodiversity, 6(2), 9-15.
Ranjitsinh, M. K. 1978. The Manipur brow-antlered deer (Cervus eldi eldi) a case history. Threatened Deer, 26-32.
Singh, M., & Khare, N. 2018. Distribution, status and conservation of Sangai deer (Rucervus eldii eldii) in Manipur, India. J. Entomol. Zool. Stud, 6, 732-737.

On the night of June une 11th, 2011, a young cougar (Puma concolor) was struck and killed by an SUV on the Wilbur Cross Parkway near the coastal town of Milford, Connecticut. At the time of death, the necropsy report indicated that this lean, two- to four- year old, sub-adult male had an empty stomach and porcupine quills embedded into his subcutaneous tissue.  Without any evidence of a captive lifestyle  (not neutered or microchipped), genetic analysis confirmed that this cougar’s DNA matched  that  of the expanding wild cougar population in the Black Hills region of South Dakota.  Camera trap videos, paw print comparisons, and also a genetic trail of fur, scat, and leftover carcasses revealed that this cougar traveled throughout Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, into Canada through  southern  Ontario,  and  then down into New York (approximately 30 miles from Manhattan) before his abrupt demise in southern Connecticut. On the search for a mate and his own home territory, this big cat’s two-year journey covered a distance of nearly 2,000 miles. This more than doubled the previous, longest-known distance of 640 miles that was ever recorded by a dispersing cougar.
Male cougars disperse much further away from their natal ranges as compared to females but rarely do they ever travel more than a few hundred miles. This cougar’s incredible cross-country trek is also the longest known migration of any land mammal ever documented in the United States. What made it even more remarkable was the fact that it was the first confirmed cougar sighting in the state of Connecticut in more than 100 years. Cougars have historically occupied the entire expanse of the United States, back in a time when Native Americans both revered and peacefully coexisted with them. However, that harmony shifted when early European immigrants began to perceive these big cats as major threats to human life and property. By the turn of the twentieth century, these apex predators were hunted to extinction in virtually all areas east of the Rocky Mountains. Records confirm that the last remaining eastern cougar was killed in 1938 near the Maine- Quebec border. The only viable cougar population left in the eastern United States is now found in South Florida. This small Floridian population was saved from the brink of extinction in 1995 through a highly controversial reintroduction of wild cougars from the state of Texas. However, this population of only 80- 100 breeding-aged adults continue to struggle and survive in less than 5% of their historic home range.
As cougars and other large carnivores help stabilize populations of potentially disruptive prey, the 80- year cougar absence in the eastern United States has had an adverse rippling effect throughout the entire region. The East is now above the carrying capacity with the cougar’s preferred prey, the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). This unbalanced predator-prey relationship has brought about severe ecological disruptions and huge socioeconomic consequences to many parts of the East.

Ecological Disruption

Deer have become the most prevalent and influential large herbivore in the eastern United States and are increasingly exceeding the environmental limits to many forested ecosystems. The chronic browsing pressure by deer results in tremendous biodiversity loss and produces a negative cascading effect on the health and function of entire forests. Overfeeding by excess deer prevents forests from naturally regenerating, since individual plants, shrubs, and herbaceous layers are damaged and cannot recover. Additionally, the openness to the forest floor alters the habitat composition of the forest and causes a shift in the colonization of non-native plant species. These dramatic ecosystem changes interfere with normal food web interactions and greatly impact the livelihood and survival rates of many animal species found in the forest. The animals most affected are the ground-nesting bird species such as the wood thrush (Hylocichla mustelina), the Eastern towhee (Pipilo erythrophthalmus), and the hooded warbler (Wilsonia citrina). Other affected animals include small mammals like the Allegheny woodrat (Neotoma magister) and the Tuckahoe masked shrew (Sorex cinereus nigriculus). Additionally, numerous reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates are also greatly impacted. Some examples include the bog turtle (Glyptemys muhlenbergii), the blue- spotted salamander (Ambystoma laterale), and the Appalachian tiger beetle (Cicindela ancocisconensis).

Socioeconomic Costs

Human health and safety are also greatly impacted by the overabundance of deer in the East.  Deer are statistically the most dangerous wild animal to people in the United States. Deer serve as hosts to vectors of several zoonotic diseases such as Lyme disease and other tick-related illnesses.  If left untreated or undiagnosed, Lyme disease can have severe symptoms that include recurrent arthritis, memory loss, and neurological issues. Documented occurrences of these tick-related diseases have reached an all-time high in every eastern state. Additionally, the number of deer-vehicle collisions have skyrocketed to an unprecedented rate of 1.2 million a year.
These collisions in the East have resulted in more than 200 human fatalities, 29,000 injuries, and $2.3 billion dollars in damage costs. Lastly, deer cause the most damage to agricultural operations and private property residences than any other animal in the eastern United States. Extensive crop damage results when deer feed, travel, or rest in agricultural fields. Crop damage costs eastern farmers a combined annual revenue loss of more than $3.5 billion dollars. The crops that experience the most damage are grains, soybeans, corn, lettuce, and tomatoes.

Cougar Range Expansion

Despite the cougar’s intentional extermination in the midwestern and eastern regions of the United States, the cougar numbers in the western United States have rebounded as a result of hunting regulations imposed by most western states throughout the mid-1960’s. However, cougars still only exist in a fraction of their historic home range as they are heavily impacted by human-caused activities such as habitat loss, habitat fragmentation, trophy hunting, poisoning, and predator control. Current data indicates that some western cougars are now dispersing eastward as these anthropogenic stressors continue to increase throughout their western ranges. This movement is crucial for maintaining genetic diversity within populations and is essential for their long-term survival. This long-distance natural dispersal has already facilitated new breeding populations in the Great Plain states of North Dakota, South Dakota, and Nebraska.

Coexistence Benefits

Based on cougar predation rates from western source populations in the United States, the average cougar appears to kill between 30-40 deer a year. Based on this information, it was estimated that cougar restoration in the East would reduce the deer density by as much as 22% over a 30-year period. This could lead to 700,000 fewer deer-vehicle collisions and result in 155 fewer deaths, 21,400 fewer injuries, and a savings of more than $1.6 billion dollars. Another study found that if the deer density were to stabilize in the eastern United States, the most damaged eastern forests could regenerate within two to three decades. Just the predation threat alone affects herbivore behavior by reducing their overall feeding time, altering their forage movements, and limiting successful reproduction by increasing their stress hormone levels. Cougars and other large carnivores also promote healthier herbivore herds by eliminating weak, disease-susceptible individuals. This ensures optimal genetic herd health by restoring the social order of dominance and allowing only the most fit males to breed.

High Risk Perception

Although science has proven that living alongside cougars would actually save far more people from death and injury, cougars (and all large carnivores) are continuously stigmatized as “bloodthirsty” animals with malicious intentions. A huge injustice occurs when these misunderstood animals, such as big cats, wolves, sharks, and others, are villainized in media outlets such as in Hollywood movies or in news  reports. A substantial overestimation of risk is often associated with these animals and it causes most  people to have an irrational fear of them. Cougars, however, have much more to fear from us than we do from them because humans are by far the largest causes of cougar mortality.

Cougars have repeatedly proven that they are not a substantial public threat as there were only 29 human fatalities and 171 nonfatal attacks that occurred in the United States and Canada between 1890-2017. Although these incidents during the past 127 years are extremely serious, they come nowhere close to the 4.5 – 4.7 million Americans that are attacked by domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) each year in the United States. Statistics indicate that approximately 20-30 people die every year from domestic dog attacks, making people ten times more likely to be killed by a domestic dog than by a cougar.
Although the odds of encountering a cougar in the wild are very small and attacks are extremely rare, more cougar attacks have been reported in the western United States over the past 20 years than in the previous 100. These attacks are directly related to the increasing human population and its encroachment into cougar habitat. There is, however, safety in numbers. Solitary hikers are three times more likely to be attacked by a cougar rather than people in a group. See Table 1 for information on how to act when encountering a cougar.

Coexistence Strategies

Since 2005, there have been a total of 466 cougar confirmations in the midwestern United States and five confirmations in the Northeast. Most of these confirmations have gone unnoticed since cougars typically try to avoid contact with people. This was demonstrated by the Connecticut cougar who remained virtually unseen and undetected for two years until that fateful summer night. However, as these big cats are steadily advancing past the Rocky Mountains, they are increasingly sharing more of the same space with humans in areas where they have long been absent. These dispersing cougars will need the full support and acceptance of the public if they are to have any chance of recolonization back into their former home territories.

The fear of human-cougar conflict plays a major role in anti-predator sentiments towards these large carnivores. Overcoming the societal challenges and the “not in my backyard” mentality will ultimately determine if people have the ability and the desire to coexist with them. Solutions to help foster positive public attitudes are essential, and significant investments into age-appropriate educational and public awareness programs should be a top priority. Children should be a primary focus for the purpose of creating future generations of conservation-minded individuals.
Knowledge of the cougar’s long-term valuable impact can also help diminish the negativity and fear that are associated with these apex predators. Information about permanent human influences on the landscape, such as roads and urban developments, should be assessed to gain an understanding of how successful cougars are in avoiding these human disturbances.
Research into potential dispersal corridors should also be encouraged to help cougars safely facilitate their eastward expansion. Lastly, actions to reduce cougar encounters should be recommended by each eastern state’s wildlife agency with the interests of all stakeholders in mind. See table 2 for actions. With more tolerance, insight, and some changes to our lifestyle, perhaps one day our long-lost eastern cougars will once again recover and unobtrusively roam the lands in which they formerly lived.

Conclusion

The cougar’s important predatory influences were not yet recognized when they were successfully eradicated from the eastern United States over a century ago. Without any natural enemies, the ecological and socio-economic evidence is quite compelling that the deer population has become overabundant in the East. Methods such as sport and recreational deer hunting have not proven effective in the management of white-tailed deer and demonstrate that the cougar’s predation pressure in controlling such populations is unmatched. Now that science has proven the value and worth of these big cats, the restoration of a natural predator-prey relationship in the East could be the much-needed solution for deer control. However, this will be for the public to decide. Whether or not cougars will be “allowed” back into the eastern United States, they are incredibly important animals that deserve protection. Not only for their valuable services to both the environment and to society, but also for the intrinsic value that they have in their own right.

Further Reading
Gilbert, S.L., K.J. Sivy, C.B. Pozzanghera, A. DuBour, K. Overduijn, M.M. Smith, J. Zhou et al. 2016. Socioeconomic benefits of large carnivore recolonization through reduced wildlife-vehicle collisions. Conservation Letters: 1-9.
Laundre, J.W. 2013. The feasibility of the north-eastern USA supporting the return of the cougar Puma concolor. Oryx 47(1): 96-104.
Ripple, W.J., J.A. Estes, R.L. Beschta, C.C. Wilmers, E.G. Ritchie, M. Hebblewhite, A.J. Wirsing et al. 2014. Status and ecological effects of the world’s largest carnivores. Science, 343: 151-164.
 

Ever since I was young, feelings of melancholy or listlessness have inevitably given rise to a particular craving: to go outdoors. The urge has taken on different forms – sometimes I want to walk the clifftops by a tempestuous sea and have my face scoured by the salty wind; other times I want to lean back against the trunk of a venerable tree and look up at the golden sun shining down through its green leaves – but, no matter how it manifests, this desire has been a constant companion over the decades. Like a good friend who brings you soup when you have the flu, that companion has consistently helped me get through difficult times: when I return home after my dose of nature, I inevitably feel emotionally healthier and more balanced.
After years of thinking that my impulse to self-medicate with green spaces was a quirk of my own personality, I recently came to discover that it is actually a habit shared by many, and its value is documented by an increasing body of scientific evidence. Exposure to nature really is good for you, not just mentally but also physically; benefits are observed across all demographics, habitats, activities, and lengths of immersion studied thus far.
If you’re looking for testimonials on the value of a ‘nature fix’, as it is called by author Florence Williams in her book of the same name, you could read one of the many recent books on this topic – including Joe Harkness’s Bird Therapy, Sarah Ivens’ Forest Therapy, Emma Mitchell’s The Wild Remedy, and Wallace J. Nichols’s Blue Mind. These and  other similar volumes could be said to be descendants of Biophilia, a 1984 book in which biologist and conservationist Edward O. Wilson proposed that humans have an innate desire to ‘affiliate with other forms of life’— and suggested that we benefit from doing so.
Alternatively, if you would like more specifics about how to actually administer a green therapy, look no further; the following paragraphs detail the what, who, and why/ how reported in the scientific literature to date.

What are the health benefits of nature?

Humans have probably been deriving health benefits from the environments in which we live for as long as Homo sapiens has been a species. For example, some of our most commonly used pharmaceuticals come from nature: aspirin is derived from willow bark, and the antibiotic penicillin is derived from the penicillium mould.

However, biophilia is most frequently discussed in relation to mental wellbeing, and one of the best-known early natural treatments is sea bathing, prescribed by doctors in the 18th and 19th centuries to combat ‘melancholy’ or ‘spleen’ (i.e., depression). These same physicians also saw the value of the fresh, clean air of mountaintops and deserts, where tuberculosis patients could retreat to sanatoria to recover their vigour and extend their lifespan. Sanatoria were no longer needed once anti-tuberculosis medication was discovered, but by then researchers had already confirmed that there were genuine benefits to spending time in these natural environments – for example, because sunlight can kill harmful bacteria and stimulate tissue generation.

Recent studies have also shown that mortality rates— particularly those from cardiovascular problems—are lower in green environments than in those where nature is less prominent. This is likely related to the fact that both blood pressure and heart rate tend to be healthier in more natural spaces; it probably doesn’t hurt that greener environments generally also protect against asthma and allergies.

Anyone who has gone on an extended camping trip will be familiar with the way that exposure to natural habitats alters sleeping patterns; though those first couple days of waking at sunrise might come as a shock, the body seems to quickly adjust to the new rhythm, leaving you feeling more rested and energised. This has been formally documented, as has the fact that views of nature – even just glimpses through a window, scenes in a video, or artwork on walls – can speed healing, boost your mood, and increase self- esteem. Interactions with nature also facilitate cognitive function, reduce feelings of stress, and enhance your sense of happiness and wellbeing.

Unsurprisingly, given this extensive suite of positive reactions and characteristics, nature is also known to boost creativity – not just inspiring art, as in the case of writers and painters who become prolific during countryside retreats, but also facilitating the sort of ‘eureka!’ moments that lead to major innovative and philosophical breakthroughs (after all, Newton was supposedly sitting under a tree when he developed his theory of gravity). That said, nature is not just a mental stimulant; proximity to nature also seems to inspire people to be more physical, prompting an increase in activities such as hiking, swimming, foraging, and, birding – all of which have been shown to have their own positive impacts on physical and mental health.

Who benefits from ‘nature treatments’?

This year, a UK-wide study on exposure to nature found that its benefits could be observed in all people examined – young or old, wealthy or poor, urban or rural, healthy or battling illness, male or female, disabled or not. Nature can help everyone.

One study on people who were moving house found that those who relocated to more natural environments experienced significant improvements in mental health relative to those who moved to new homes in less natural areas. Although the depressed mood did eventually improve in the latter group and return to baseline levels, the former group continued to experience the positive boost for an extended period of time. In a separate project conducted in the UK, scientists found that people who live near the coast are healthier than those dwelling inland – a pattern that cannot merely be explained by increased levels of coast-related exercise (e.g., swimming or kayaking). Thus, it appears that individuals can benefit not only from living in natural areas, but also from living in particular types of habitat.

Attitudes towards, and expectations of, habitat can also play an important role in how people respond to it. Individuals with extensive experience in rugged, remote environments may find urban green spaces lacking; there are also some cultures  in  which  negative  associations with natural environments may  prevent  enjoyment  of these spaces (though perhaps people may experience benefits of which they are unaware). City-dwellers with no exposure to the countryside may feel overwhelmed in the wild, and anyone who has had a traumatic experience in nature – being bitten by a snake, perhaps, or suffering a terrible allergic response to a plant – may find it difficult to relax in natural environments ever again. That said, it is possible that everyone may experience benefits from exposure to green spaces, even if they are unaware of these perks at the time.
People who are able to recognise biodiversity can get more enjoyment and benefit out of spending time in nature. This effect can be observed even if the biodiversity is perceived rather than actual, and even if that diversity includes non-native species; this likely helps explain why some people get as much benefit from spending time in managed gardens as others derive from visiting a forest.
No matter where you go and what you encounter there, you may get more out of the experience if you are in greater need; research has shown that more mentally fatigued individuals anticipate more effective natural cures, leading to a sense of restoration. Indeed, a growing body of research has shown that green therapies are particularly helpful for those who are busiest, most stressed, and most unhappy – for example, children and young adults with ADHD as well as those who are otherwise neurotypical but are still worried about things such as school exams, adults with high-pressure jobs and packed schedules, and individuals who are feeling lonely. These are all aspects of the personal experiences documented in Emma Mitchell’s The Wild Remedy, in which she describes the way in which nature acted as a lifeline when she needed it most.

People who are able to recognise biodiversity can get more enjoyment and benefit out of spending time in nature. This effect can be observed even if the biodiversity is perceived rather than actual, and even if that diversity includes non-native species; this likely helps explain why some people get as much benefit from spending time in managed gardens as others derive from visiting a forest.

Why/how does nature heal us?

Generally speaking, time spent in nature is time spent away from stressful, sedentary, or otherwise harmful activities – and this goes a long way towards explaining many of the benefits of green therapies. However, nature is not helpful just because it is not something else; exposure to natural environments also impacts our health by altering physiological processes.

For example, plants act as natural filters, removing pollution from the air and leaving us with cleaner oxygen to inhale. Engaging in slower, deeper breathing tells the body that it can stand down the sympathetic nervous system – the one responsible for ‘fight or flight’ – and can instead allow the parasympathetic system to take over; the parasympathetic facilitates what has been known as the ‘feed and breed’ and ‘rest and digest’ groups of behaviours which are, on the whole, less stressful and more relaxed.
Deep breaths also result in increased oxygen intake, which helps balance out levels of serotonin – a neurotransmitter that impacts, among other  things, mood, memory, and social behaviour. The air in natural spaces tends to have higher negative ion counts, which increases brain wave amplitude and facilitates alpha  brain waves that give rise to a clear, calm feeling. Further, the natural landscape is filled with fractals, shapes in which the features of component parts match, when scaled up, the features of the overall shape; these are also described as ‘self-similar’. Looking at fractals can be very pleasing, which researchers now know is because these shapes interact with our visual processing system in a way as to activate the parahippocampus – an opioid-rich part of the brain that plays a role in regulating emotions. Nature also engages our other main externally-focused senses, simultaneously delivering stimuli associated with visuals, scent/taste, sound, and touch. In the modern world it is increasingly rare for an experience to provide so many sensations all at once – or for us to be in a position in which we are actively concentrating on them all. Scientists have found that the types and amounts of stimuli in natural environments provide a Goldilocks- style experience: not so dull as to be boring, not so overwhelming as to be stressful, but perfect for keeping us engaged in a relaxing way. This balances out cognitive function and prevents any one part of the brain from being overwhelmed, which, in turn, allows our neurons to relax and recalibrate.

The rest of our bodies also benefit from this opportunity to unwind. Exposure to nature  results  in  reductions  in the hormone cortisol. Cortisol levels are also known to drop in response to pleasant-smelling plants like lavender and rosemary; these scents also increase blood velocity to the heart, thus improving circulation. Studies of another aromatic – extracts from the hinoki cypress tree – have revealed why exposure to green spaces can improve immune function: even just a few hours of breathing vaporized hinoki oil has been shown to increase the presence of natural killer cells, a white blood cell integral to our innate immune response.
The hinoki oil treatment described above has also been associated with better sleep and reductions in fatigue. In general, exposure to natural lighting scheme helps reset our circadian rhythms and improve our rest. Sunlight also stimulates the release of dopamine, a neurotransmitter that, among other things, acts in the retina to keep eyes healthy and prevent myopia. Depending on what you do when you venture out into nature, you may also be producing endorphins, chemicals that not only inhibit pain signals but also can produce feelings of euphoria – such as the ‘runner’s high’, which you are particularly likely to experience if your green therapy involves activities such as rock climbing, kayaking, or trail running. Research has also found that spending time in nature can reduce blood flow to the subgenual region of the brain, which is related to feelings of self-wallowing; in other words, even if you don’t achieve a ‘high’, you can perhaps combat a ‘low’ by heading outdoors.

One recent study found that it only takes two hours of green therapy a week to kickstart these processes and help you feel the benefits of what some researchers refer to as nature’s ‘biophysical ecosystem services’. You don’t have to be active during that time, and you don’t even have to undertake all that exposure in a single go. Though the effects of the ‘nature fix’ can be felt almost immediately, it is not yet clear just how long these positive impacts can last; further research will be needed to determine how often you should administer a dose of nature if you want to maximize your health.

The future of nature treatments

Researchers predict that, 30 years from now, some 70% of humans will live in urban spaces – where access to biodiversity and green spaces are often minimal. This is one of the main reasons that nature therapy has recently become such a hot topic; indeed, a majority of studies focus explicitly on urban habitats. Another key driver is the global depression epidemic. Though increasing rates of diagnosis may simply reflect a better understanding of mental health and a greater disposition to discuss it, there is also some evidence that our increased isolation from nature and from each other – both of which have been linked to urbanization and to growing use of technology – are disrupting our brain chemistry and causing unhappiness.
Looking to make anthropogenic habitats more enjoyable, more aesthetically pleasing, and generally better for our wellbeing, everyone from doctors to social workers to city planners have already started implementing projects informed by the sort of research discussed above. Schools create gardens so that students can learn about plants through hands-on, whole-body experiences. Doctors and psychologists prescribe nature walks and community volunteering so that patients get fresh air in circumstances where they are also likely to make friends and grow support networks. Hospitals hang nature-themed art on the walls and provide patients with access to gardens. Prisons create green therapy spaces where the incarcerated can de-stress and regain their calm. Cities pass bills requiring the installation of green rooftops and green walls, and divert funds to the creation of, for example, water features specifically designed to mask the sounds of traffic noise.

These and many more measures have been very successful, though it is important to admit that nature cures aren’t always perfect, or for everyone. For example, the introduction of water features might be aesthetically and aurally pleasing, but they could lead to stagnation and facilitate the growth of unwanted insect populations. In a bid to increase greenery, some landscapers might introduce plant species that cause allergic reactions in humans. Though many people love plants of all shapes and sizes, some can feel crowded and hemmed in by certain types and amounts of vegetation, so it is important to consider not just location, but also structure and makeup of natural areas.
It has been documented that more and larger green spaces tend to be found in areas of higher socioeconomic status, suburbs and up-market parts of cities, whereas inner city communities often live in highly concretised tenements. Future projects could very easily increase this divide between haves and have-nots. It is also somewhat ironic that many conservationists and environmentalists have pushed for an exclusionary approach, which seeks to move people out of natural areas where they have lived in the name of protecting species or habitats. This can only reduce the connections between people and nature, and remove the few benefits that they already receive.

Investigations of ‘nature cures’ are increasing alongside reports of ‘ecoanxiety’ – depression, post-traumatic stress, and anxiety related to climate change and environmental degradation; it is, in the word of one researcher, ‘a chronic fear of environmental doom.’ Many who experience eco-anxiety are nature-lovers who, like me, have spent their lives finding solace and healing in the outdoors and are now worried about the future of the planet.

But perhaps our growing awareness of how nature can positively benefit our own bodies might help spur more people into action; rather than trying to appreciate some distant and hard-to-see process such as nutrient cycling and buffering of floodwaters, people could appreciate the more visceral experience of lower blood pressure or lifted spirits. In other words, perhaps our greater investment in the creation and maintenance of green therapy opportunities for ourselves will facilitate conservation and restoration initiatives that will have positive side effects for wild ecosystems – a nature cure for nature itself.
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One of the most ubiquitous sounds that that snorkelers or scuba divers hear when visiting a coral reef is a subtle ambient soundtrack of snapping, crackling, and popping. Most visitors are surprised to learn that these sounds have a biological basis: they are made by  thousands  of snapping shrimps, living in the coral matrix. Snapping shrimp (Alpheus and Synalpheus) are one of the most abundant and diverse inhabitants of coral reef communities. Systematic surveys of coral reef diversity indicate that  these  shrimps  constitute  a  significant proportion of what is known as the “cryptofauna”—small animals, both mobile and sessile, that live in the coral reef matrix or in symbiosis with other coral reef organisms. The din of snapping shrimps is so pervasive that one species was even named after the legendary band Pink Floyd (Synalpheus pinkfloydi).

The snap that gives these shrimp their name is produced by an asymmetrically enlarged claw, armed with a complex snapping mechanism. Although it was thought for years that the sound was produced by the two fingers of the claw striking together, studies utilizing high-speed video indicated that the snap comes milliseconds after the closing of the claw, and is produced by the violent implosion of a cavitation bubble. This implosion also causes a small flash of light and a powerful shock wave, giving these shrimps their other common name—pistol shrimp. These shrimps use their snapping claw for many functions, including communication, defense, and predation. Some species of Alpheus use specially modified hammer-like claws to drill elaborate galleries of tunnels into rock or dead coral.

However, far from being a curiosity of natural history, the snap may have important consequences for coral reef communities. Recent studies have shown that the ambient noise of snapping shrimps can be an important indicator of reef health, and may in some cases serve as an acoustic settlement cue for juvenile reef fishes.

The snap of these shrimps also plays an important role in communication and interactions with symbiotic partners of these shrimp. Although most snapping shrimps are free- living, many species form symbiotic relationships with other marine animals including sponges, corals, gobiid fishes, echiuran worms, crinoid echinoderms, and sea anemones. For example, many species of Alpheus snapping shrimps form partnerships with different species of  goby fishes. These mutualisms have been some of  the most well studied  examples of cross-species communication in the sea. In this relationship, shrimp construct burrows in sand or rubble, which are colonized by gobies. In return, the goby acts as a lookout, warning the shrimp of approaching fish or other predators using a series of carefully timed tail flicks or other specialized behaviors. Shrimps maintain constant antennal contact with the goby while outside of the burrow, suggesting that this is necessary for accurate signal transmission.

Many species of Synalpheus snapping shrimps also dwell exclusively in the intricate canal systems of marine sponges. These sponges undoubtedly provide a critical predator-free habitat for these shrimp; fish typically immediately consume any shrimps removed from their sponge hosts underwater. However, experiments show that under some contexts, sponges can grow faster with shrimp living inside, and shrimp also defend their host sponge against predatory sea stars.

In some cases, these symbioses can have important effects on community functioning. For example, the shrimp Alpheus lottini typically lives symbiotically with branching pocilloporid corals. Although these corals are eaten by the crown-of-thorns sea star Acanthaster planci—a predator that can be several hundred times larger than the shrimp defender—A. lottini will vigorously defend its coral host by snapping and attacking the tube feet of the sea star using their snapping claw. Dense stands of this coral, protected by their crustacean symbionts, can actually provide refuge from Acanthaster predation to many other coral species, with important community consequences on coral reefs.

Snapping shrimp are also the only marine animals that show advanced social behavior,   in the form of eusociality. Eusociality is most well-known in terrestrial insects such as ants and bees, and typically consists of colonies consisting of hundreds or thousands of workers that sacrifice their individual reproduction to support a single breeding queen and cooperatively care for the young of the colony. Several species of snapping shrimps in the genus Synalpheus are known to be eusocial. These shrimp dwell in dense colonies in marine sponges, consisting of typically a single reproducing queen shrimp and tens to hundreds of worker shrimp that jointly defend their host. They are capable of complex group and individual communication. For example, individual worker shrimp can discriminate between colony members vs. non-colony members, repelling the latter with fierce snaps. Some eusocial shrimp colonies engage in coordinated snapping, a collective group defense in which a sentinel shrimp recruits the rest of the colony to snap in concert, resulting in a loud crackling sound that repels invaders.

This suite of traits allows eusocial Synalpheus to be competitively dominant to pair-living species: two decades of research across the Caribbean indicate that eusocial species are typically far more abundant than pair-living species and use more host sponges. However, recent surveys indicate a  drastic decline in  the  abundance of eusocial species in  areas (e.g. Belize) where they have been numerically dominant for decades. These declines are thought to result from multiple factors, including population cycles of the shrimp and recent changes in sponge and coral community structure in Caribbean coral reefs.

Thus, snapping shrimps play important roles in coral reef communities—as defenders of corals and sponges, bioeroders, and creators of the ambient soundscape that signals a healthy coral reef. Although most conservation research has focused on charismatic reef fauna such as corals and fishes, the important ecological contributions of these cryptic shrimps demonstrate the importance of the hidden biodiversity of coral reefs.
 

Further Reading

 Hultgren, K., J. E. Duffy, and D. R. Rubenstein. 2017. Sociality in Shrimps. Pages 224–249 in D. R. Rubenstein and P. Abbot, editors. Comparative Social Evolution. Cambridge University Press.
Glynn, P. 1976. Some physical and biological determinants of coral community structure in the eastern Pacific. Ecological Monographs 46:431–456.
Gordon, T. A. C., H. R. Harding, K. E. Wong, N. D. Merchant, M. G. Meekan, M. I. McCormick, A. N. Radford, and S. D. Simpson. 2018. Habitat degradation negatively affects auditory settlement behavior of coral reef fishes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115:5193–5198.

 

Isn’t it odd how certain creatures elicit delight while others of similar form generate disgust? To me this distinction in feelings is all too real when I compare my reaction to seeing a spiny lobster to that of a cockroach. Both animals are very similar in form and function – long sensory antennae, body consisting of head, thorax and abdomen, numerous hairy legs; both opportunistic omnivores. But the cockroach has scared me off my favourite oceanic islands and the most majestic tallships, while the lobster on the other hand prods my scientific curiosity. I studied the reproductive ecology of American lobsters for my master’s at the University of Maine, USA and my affinity for these crustaceans has followed me to the tropical islands of the Indian Ocean. Tropical spiny lobsters are bizarre but beautiful, with complex life histories and population dynamics that can take many human life times to uncover.

The common names of spiny lobsters like the painted (Panulirus versicolor), ornate (P. ornatus) or scalloped (P. homarus) demonstrate their visual appeal. Tropical shallow-water spiny lobsters are intricately patterned and display a wider range of colors than an artist’s palette. The carapace that protects the cephalothorax and the base of the antennae and feet are all covered in forward pointed spines, making it tricky to capture them unless you have evolved to prey on them or are a trained lobster biologist or fisher. Their exquisite colours are often lost when the lobster is cooked; the heat turns the exoskeleton into a bright red. Thus the beauty is best observed on dives or at fish landing sites and stores. Lobsters have evolved to be creatures of the night and only step out of their holes and crevices after dusk after their visual predators like triggerfish have gone to bed. During the day, the gregarious adults hang in groups of 2 or more, often hiding in coral crevices and under ledges. The juveniles tend to be more solitary occupying small coral holes. But they all sit with their faces pointed outwards, their antennae gently swaying in the tropical waters that are full of smells, sounds and vibrations. The sway of lobster antennae is very similar to the sway of cockroach antennae both of which I have gotten very good at detecting, albeit for different reasons and outcomes.
In the Andaman Islands, where I am currently based, there are at least 6 species of spicy lobster and 1 species of slipper lobster. With exponentially expanding seafood export industries, understanding the ecology of our island lobsters hasbecome more vital  than ever before. Like most benthic marine life – lobsters have a biphasic life cycle: adults remain on the bottom (‘the benthos’), while their larvae travel the seas in search of food and meaning. Pelagic dispersal of benthic marine organisms can be advantageous as it opens up opportunities to find better habitat, increase genetic exchange and avoid benthic predators. Such dispersal can also be beneficial to fisheries by replenishing depleted stocks. Luckily the Andaman Islands have a network of protected areas that include marine parks and tribal reserves but the overlap of protection and species sources and sinks is yet to be determined.

Spiny lobsters take 7-11 years to attain sexual maturity, fertilization is external and fertilized eggs are carried by females for 3-6 months. Hatched spiny lobster larvae undergo a series of moults, drifting in currents for 12 – 15 months, before finding suitable benthic habitats to settle onto. The larvae themselves are very bizarre looking. The early larvae metamorphose into an alien like creature called the phyllosoma – and this name literally translates into ‘leaf body’. The phyllosoma’s cephalothorax is disc shaped and enlarged, kind of  looks like the millennium falcon – gliding through the water column at the mercy of currents and consumers. Phyllosomas can be large – upto 4cm in length – and are often observed hitching rides on jellyfish. These space crafts moult into the final larval stage –   the puerulus that starts resembling the adult. Once the puerulus reaches ‘competency’ i.e. the ability to detect the benthos and an affinity to occupy it, it will ‘settle’ to the bottom. These steps sound simple, biological, but are at the mercy of the wind, currents, pH, temperature, predators and even plankton nets!

Currently we are on month 8 of a yearlong study to profile the near shore plankton of the Andaman Islands. Our plankton net has mercilessly caught two lobster phyllosomas, both on new moon nights but months apart, and we are hoping more might be stored in our unanalysed weekly samples. This study aims to profile daily, lunar and seasonal patterns in meroplankton diversity and abundance. Meroplankton are that part of the zooplankton community that only spend part of their life cycle in the plankton, so these are usually larvae of benthic creatures. So far we have gotten a wide variety of fish, crab, cnidarian, shrimp, polychaete and molluscan larvae and the list continues to grow. In addition to meroplankton we are also studying changes in the dominant holoplankton community: the grazers (copepods), the filter feeders (appendicularians and planktonic snails) and the ambush predators (the arrow  worms). One arrow  worm  was  also caught  in the act of swallowing a fish larvae! While holoplankton can be processed efficiently with digital scanners and silhouette photo identification; the rarer meroplankton require visual searching by trained individuals. The sheer diversity of the tropics and severe knowledge gaps make our work difficult but not impossible. Funded by the Department of Biotechnology, this is part of a larger project at Dakshin Foundation that aims to develop inexpensive ways in which to profile nearshore planktonic communities. While zooplankton are too large, the project is demonstrating the value of inexpensive microscopes called foldscopes in studying phytoplankton communities – wherein techniques can be designed for long-term monitoring of coastal resources by citizen-scientists, local schools or colleges. Our work is opening up a pandoras box worth of answerable questions related to the holy grail of marine sciences – supply-side ecology; some of which can be applied to study the fisheries ecology of Andaman’s high value lobster and grouper seafood industries.

On a bright sunny afternoon, after all the boats have come in for the day, a group of women fishers in a fishing village in Tamil Nadu sit around a pile of ‘trash’ fish. This is the catch, comprising a large number of invertebrates and non-edible fish, that will be dried and sold as animal feed and for fertilizer, but these women make a last-ditch attempt to sort through this fish to salvage what little they can. One of the women, Amutha triumphantly holds up a couple of seahorses and says, “This will help me buy some tea and snacks for the day”.

For people like Amutha, finding stray seahorses means some extra income for the family, while for the men, it usually covers the day’s alcohol and beedis. A trader comes in every day to buy all the seahorses they have collected (along with conches and other protected species that have gotten caught in their nets). It is a quick exchange, where the trader calls the shots. The fisher has no say on the price he or she will get for the seahorses, and they typically do not know what it is used for, other than the fact that it goes “to foreign” for some medicine.

It is very difficult to imagine that the seahorse, which is so casually traded for a pittance, is afforded the same protection by Indian law as the tiger.

What is the seahorse, and why should we care about them?

The seahorse is a strange-looking fish. They have a head like a horse, tail like a monkey, a kangaroo-like pouch, and eyes that move independently like a chameleon. Seahorses belong to the genus Hippocampus (from the Greek words for horse (hippos) and sea monster (campus)) and to the same family (syngnathids) as the pipefish. Seahorses are probably best known because, unlike most animals, it is the male that gives birth.

Seahorses are marine species, found amongst seagrass beds, mangrove roots and coral reefs, although some species are suited to dealing with varying salinity and are able to survive in estuaries as well. Seahorses manage to survive in their environment thanks to ability not just to change colour, but also to grow skin filaments and blend in with their surroundings. They use their camouflage, and flexibility to evade predators, since they are not the fastest of swimmers. In fact, the dwarf seahorse is considered to be the slowest fish in the sea.

While they are able to evade predators in the wild,seahorses face a major threat from overfishing and habitat degradation. Most often, like in Amutha’s village, seahorses are caught incidentally in fishing nets, which means that they are not the main intended species of the fishing expedition, but are caught as a result of indiscriminate fishing gear.

This has led to a worldwide decline  in  seahorse numbers. Globally, there are 44 identified species of seahorses, of which 14 have been listed as threatened, two as endangered, and 12 are vulnerable by the IUCN’s (World Union for Conservation of Nature) red list of threatened species, which assesses the extinction risk of species. There is not enough data to assess the status of about 17 of these species, while 11 are listed as ‘not threatened’. However, a recent study seems to suggest that at least nine of the 17 species for which there is not much data may also be threatened. In India, there are currently seven known species of seahorses in India, of which six have been listed as vulnerable and the seventh species has been assessed as data deficient.

There are a number of reasons why it is important that we understand how to conserve seahorses, and how the understanding can help improve our policies for marine conservation in general.

The threats faced by seahorses are the same that most other marine species face, including the degradation of their habitat, over exploitation,  and  being  caught as bycatch. This has made seahorses flagship species for researchers to explain the need for marine conservation. Not only do they look extremely cool, they are also important players in the maintenance of the marine ecosystem, since they feed on organisms that live on the seafloor. Understanding the rampant exploitation and international trade of seahorses, and the fate of other incidentally caught species, can help strengthen legislation, and could go a long way towards protecting our marine environment.

The global catch and trade of seahorses

Seahorses are mostly an incidentally caught fish. This means that fishers typically do not set out to catch seahorses, but they are often caught in the nets of bottom trawls, where a net is dragged along the seabed, impacting nearly everything in its path, and is the most destructive fishing method used globally. Thousands of non-target species are caught using this method, and large areas of marine habitats are destroyed. Typically, bycatch from these bottom trawls include seahorses, sea cucumbers, and a large number of other species. This indiscriminate fishing is believed to contribute to the capture of at least 37 million seahorses each year, and it is believed that a large number of seahorses caught as bycatch enter into seahorse trade.

Traditional Chinese Medicine is one of the main drivers of the trade of seahorses, since seahorses, in the dried form, are believed to cure conditions like baldness, asthma and arthritis improve sexual performance. Live seahorses are also in fairly popular demand and are traded for use in aquariums. Often, seahorses are sold as curios as well.
Despite a declining population, the trade continues to be rampant. Millions of seahorses are traded every year, and it is estimated that between 20 and 25 million seahorses are traded around the world every year. The demand for seahorses, and  their declining populations led to  seahorses being listed in Appendix II  of the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES) in 2002. This was seen as a means to regulate exports and ensure their wild populations remain intact. CITES is a Multilateral Environmental Agreement (MEA), and is the biggest and oldest wildlife trade convention that aims to regulate international trade of animals and plants.

Seahorse fisheries and Trade in India, and the ban.

Until 2001, India was among the top four exporters of seahorses. But what changed after? To combat its substantial and unregulated seahorse fisheries, in 2001 India included all seahorses (and pipefishes) under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act which signifies a ban on the capture and trade of these species. However, being a small, bycaught marine species, they often come up accidentally in nets and then can easily fit into a pocket or the pallu of a sari, and the enforcement of the ban is much tougher.
In mainland India, till the ban, most of the seahorses in international trade were caught from the south- eastern coast of the country, from the Gulf of Mannar, and the Palk Bay, located in Tamil Nadu. While some of the seahorses were from targeted diving, a large number were incidentally caught using non-selective fishing gear. In addition to the large number of trawls operating in this region, seahorses face additional pressure from traditional but non-selective fishing methods such as the “Thallu madi” or drag nets. These nets, prevalent in the Palk Bay region of Tamil Nadu, are dragged along bottom-habitats in shallow waters directly over seagrass beds, and though often wind operated, are responsible for the catch of millions of seahorses.
While plenty of fishers continue to catch seahorses, fishers complain about declining fish catches, and many traditional fshers been severely impacted. For example, the divers who are not able to catch seahorses anymore but are losing out to the labour on trawler boats, who are often not even from the fishing community.
Although it has been fifteen years since the ban on catch and trade, what is clear is that seahorses continue being caught and traded in large numbers illegally. The demand for seahorses remains steady, and the prices received by traders for seahorses also increasing, which makes conserving the species even more challenging.

Do we need a change of tactic?

Project Seahorse has been working extensively to try and understand the impact of the ban on the catch and trade of seahorses. What we found is that India’s ban on catching and trading of seahorses has in no way ended their extraction, just as so many other wildlife trade bans (e.g. elephants) have had little impact for conservation. The ban is rendered more ineffective because of the rampant indiscriminate fishing in the country. Seahorses that are accidentally caught in the nets are often dead by the time that fishers sort their catches or reach the shore.
In the words of one of the fishers, Vellaiappan, “We cannot regulate catch in the ocean, and cannot control how much we catch, and cannot release seahorses once we catch them”. Instead, he advocates for the removal of the ban so that the fisherman can fish without fear.
The ban on seahorses is further undermined because of the poor communication to the fishers about the ban. After nearly two decades of the ban, what we found was that most fishers, and even officials, outside the state of Tamil Nadu were even unaware of this ban. Fishers in other states often would speak of other banned species, but not of seahorses. For example, in Gujarat, fishers would talk about the ban on whale sharks, but did not seem aware of the seahorse ban. In Kerala, on the other hand, there is a widespread belief that the ban only applied to Tamil Nadu fishers, and not to them.
Education and awareness often prove to be ineffective, since the question of livelihood is at stake. As one  fisher from the Gulf of Mannar region of Tamil Nadu puts it, “Once the seahorse comes up dead, what is the point of throwing it back into the ocean? We may as well make some money from it.” For the fishers, the profits from selling seahorses are minimal, and they are often at the mercy of the trader, who determines the prices.
In the years after India banned its’ seahorse catch and trade, a number of countries such as Thailand and Vietnam because of their inability to manage seahorse trades at sustainable levels have since banned the trade of seahorses.

However, recent estimates suggest that around 95 per cent of the dried seahorses found in Hong Kong’s large market are reported to have come from countries like Indonesia, India, Malaysia, Vietnam, Philippines and Thailand, all countries that have banned seahorse trade. This begs the question, is the ban effective? Many governments find that it is easier banning the trade of seahorses than actually having to develop actual measures to ensure the conservation of these species. Till date, the focus has always been on the trade of seahorses. However, given that seahorses are typically incidental catch, it may be more effective to focus on preventing the extraction of seahorses from the ocean.

Rather than focusing on the ban of extraction and trade of specific species, what needs to be done is to phase out destructive methods such as bottom. Controlling the kinds of gear used. or setting some restrictions on the time or place where fishing can happen, could help.

Until there is a concerted move to control the devastation caused by indiscriminate fishing, the trading of seahorses, and other banned species will continue. The trader who regularly visits Amutha’s village agrees. According to him, all the regulation must happen at sea. “As long as there are no regulations on catches of seahorses being caught at sea, we will continue to have business in these villages”.